Starting Out: Preliminary Research

There is a brief section in the introduction to the course which has a little of the history of printmaking described but there are very few images included so I decided to search online for images linked to the descriptions. The sections in italics are extracted from the course notes. My own thoughts are not in italics. 




"The history of printmaking on paper is relatively short compared to that of painting or sculpture. However, in a simple form, handprints are to be found in the caves at Lascaux in France dating from 15,000 years ago."

Fig1: Cave Handprints dating back 15.000 years

I find it fascinating that we can see the form of the artist's hands across 15,000 years and that  there was the urge to create an image even so very long ago. 

"It was not until the invention of the printing process in the middle of the
15th century that artists were able to explore the opportunities that mass production of printed images offered to communicate ideas. The earliest form of printing images, which preceded that of written texts, is relief printing in the form of woodcuts. A wooden block was prepared and cut into to leave the relief of an image, sometimes with a simple text, and covered in ink. This was then printed onto paper to produce several good impressions before the wooden block wore out in the process. As a result simple woodcut prints became a cheap and relatively easy way of distributing small religious images and texts to people for their own private devotions"

Fig 2: Christ as Man of Sorrows, artist unknown
15th century woodcut

Before the Renaissance, the artist was considered more like a craftsman, producing images for a particular purpose. "Art fir Art's sake" was not really a phenomenon of the time. In many cases, art would be commissioned for a religious purpose by a rich patron in an attempt to demonstrate their piety. The invention of the printing press was a pivotal event in the 15th century allowing access to text and images to many many more people than would previously have been able to see them. 

Albrecht Dürer was a master artist of the renaissance. Compare the detailed work in his woodcut below with the relatively simple image above:

Fig 3: Albrecht Dürer, The Four Horsemen of the
Apocalypse, Woodcut 1498

"However, woodcuts have one main disadvantage. The amount of detail possible in them is very limited and soon artists discovered a more suitable medium to allow them to reproduce finely observed details - the engraving. This is an intaglio print method where fine lines are scratched into a copper plate, filled with ink and printed. The artist is able to draw the most minute details directly onto the copperplate as with a hard pencil onto paper.
Together with the woodcut, engravings became the way in which images were distributed all over Europe. Artists could learn ideas from each other and reproduce, or develop them. In this way printed images from Renaissance Italy spread north to influence the work of artists such as Albrecht Durer, himself a master of the woodcutting and engraving methods. "

 

Fig 4: Melancholia, Engraving, Albrecht Dürer 1514

Melancholia, shown above in a rather poor reproduction is considered to be one of Albrecht Dürer's master prints. It has been the subject of much speculation as to how it should be interpreted who I do not intend to discuss here. It is included here as an example of the intricacy and fine craftsmanship that is a achievable with engraving.
An amazing range of tonal values and building of very detailed form has been achieved here with different types of hatching and directional marks. 

"Throughout the following centuries more and more printmaking techniques were developed and invented. As the mass distribution of printed literature increased and became cheaper to produce, so too did the reproduction of printed images. These images were often copies of master paintings and helped spread ideas and visual records round the world. The printmaking processes such as etching and engraving, mezzotint and aquatint also enabled artists to make original printed art works rather than copies of existing paintings and sell them to a wide audience. Several copies of the same image could be made from each plate to be sold to an up-and-coming middle class looking to decorate their homes with original and contemporary art work. In this way art prints could be sold more cheaply than a commissioned painting and became affordable to a greater number of people as well as providing the artist with an income.

Rembrandt’s mastery of the etching technique was widely acknowledged during his lifetime. It is clear from looking at his prints that he is using the etching medium to fully express his creative ideas. He exploits the full expressive range of the process to create works of the same quality of intensity as his paintings. During his lifetime Rembrandt’s etchings became highly sought after and connoisseurs formed collections of them, many of these collections still exist today and form an amazing record of the evolution of Rembrandt’s etchings."

Fig 5: Rembrandt Van Rijn, Self Portrait in a Cap with
Eyes Wide Open, Etching, 1630

Rembrandt made very many self portraits throughout his life. This etching is part of a group in which he was experimenting with different facial expressions. The relatively loosely hatched lines give an impression of rapid execution which fits with the idea of this being a fleeting expression. However, it is clearly a posed expression and therefore looks a bit like and over-acted mock surprise. 

Fig 6: Rembrandt Van Rijn, The Entombment,
 Etching, Drypoint and Engraving 1654

The entombment shown above was produced in several different states or versions. He was able to alter the darkness of the image by altering the amount of ink he wiped from the plate. He eventually produced a very dark image in which only the figures were illuminated by wiping selectively only in these areas. This reflects the profound darkness of the shadows with only faces illuminated in many of his paintings. 

By selectively wiping, Rembrandt has effectively created a monoprint rather than an edition of identical prints. 

"At the same time the painter and printmaker Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione was working in Italy and is credited with the invention of the monoprint." 

Fig 7: Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione,
The Creation of Adam. Monotype 1642

In the image above it can be seen that the artist has worked in a subtractive manner by covering a plate with black ink and then scraping and wiping away ink to reveal the image. 



Fig 8: Another monotype by Giovanni
Benedetto Castiglione
This appears to have been created by an
additive process. 

"In England, about a century later, Hogarth achieved fame and some financial success by reproducing series of his paintings as engravings. These paintings depicting moral tales appealed to the popular market and sold in large quantities. Using his early training as a book illustrator Hogarth used the print medium to market his talents as an artist to a wider audience. Unlike Rembrandt however, he did not use the medium to express new creative ideas which were different to those he used in painting."

Fig 9: William Hogarth, A Rake's Progress: Arrested for
Debt. Oil on canvas 1732-5

Fig 10: William Hogarth, A Rake's Progress: Arrested
for Debt. Engraving 1734.

The examples above come from Hogarth's series "A Rake's Progress" which describes the decline in circumstances of a rich heir who squanders his money and ends up in debtor's prison and eventually in Bedlam Hospital when he loses his mind. The print is pretty much a copy of the painting with a few added details. I find I can't really warm to these images with their 18th century morals and theatricality. However I can see parallels here with modern day comics or 'graphic novels' as well as with film storyboarding. 

"Colour printing processes add another range of opportunities for artists. Combining expressive and commercial opportunities for working with a wide audience, artists have exploited the use of the ‘art’ print. In the mid-19th century multicoloured woodcuts from Japan were finding their way to Europe. These highly skilled printed images had one of the most significant influences on the development of Western contemporary artists for decades. The Japanese prints showed dramatically composed scenes where the subject could be partially cropped out of the picture, areas of flat colour and sweeping lines."

 

Fig 11: Crossing the Sumidagwa River, Toyohara Kunichika
Colour Woodcut on Japan Paper 1855

Fig 12: Under the Wave off Kanagawa. Katsushika Hokusai
1830-32. Colour woodcut on Paper. 

The multicoloured prints were achieved by using a block for each separate colour some contained up to 16 different colours which would be laborious and require excellent print registration for each subsequent layer. 

"Artists including Degas and Manet were among the first to adopt the ideas found in these Japanese woodcuts in their own paintings. Whistler, also an admirer of the prints, used their ideas on composition and design in his paintings, etchings and engravings"

Fig 12: James Abbott McNeill Whistler, Upright
Venice. Etching and Drypoint 1879-1880

Although the image above is not coloured like the Japanese prints, Whistler has experimented with composition influenced by these prints by placing the horizon line very high and using areas of flat space with little embellishment. Also an asymmetric composition. 

"In Paris, Toulouse Lautrec developed lithographic posters and extended the understanding of how colour could be used by mixing his own expressive palette. The influence of fashionable Japanese woodcuts is clear in his simplification of detail and the way in which bold shapes and patterns form a highly organised image"

Fig 13: Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Moulin Rouge
La Goulue. Lithograph 1891

It is arguably easier to read the Japanese influence in Toulouse-Lautrec's posters than in Whistler's work. The bold areas of flat colour and dynamic somewhat diagonal composition with cropping of the main protagonists clearly shows the influence of the Japanese woodblocks on his style.

"The comparison between Rembrandt’s and Hogarth’s use of the print to reach their respective markets emphasises two of the important ways artist use prints. Firstly the print medium, whether it is relief or intaglio, lithograph or screen print, has unique expressive qualities for the artist to exploit. Once familiar with print techniques, an artist can communicate a wide range of visual / emotive ideas. Secondly the print process enables the artist to make multiple reproductions that can be more affordable to a wider audience, which does not normally invest in original art work."

The above could have been written as a summary of why I would like to learn printmaking!

"It may surprise you to discover that many early 20th century painters explored printmaking methods as a means of creative expression. Degas, for example, developed monoprints representing his ballet dancers; and Picasso and Matisse made use of linocutting to produce prints."

Click Here for an example of a Degas Monoprint on the Moma website

I love this monoprint- It has wonderful movement and the subtractive manner of its execution (wiping ink from an inked plate) has revealed a real sense of contrast which evokes the strong illumination of the dancers on a darkened stage. I sense that this has been executed rapidly and confidently which fills me with admiration. I prefer this to many of his larger and prettier masterpieces in oils and pastels

Click Here to link to an article on the Phaidon website about Picasso's approach to Reduction Linocut

The article and video in the link above not only show two exciting and very diverse linocuts by Picasso but also provide an insight into the process of reduction linocut for beginners like me!

Click Here to link to selected drawings and graphic works on the Henri Matisse website which include three linocuts

The three linocut prints shown in the link above were executed in 1942. It is interesting to see them as part of Matisse's wider drawing practice. There is a progression from his quite detailed lithographs in the 1920s to the very reductive style of drawing in these prints. He tries to capture the essence of his subject with just a few lines. In the case of linocut they are printed in negative with the cut lines coming out white - something which adds to their visual impact compared to the drawings on white paper. This reductive approach  I very much admire and would like to emulate.

"In the late 19th century Munch and Gaugin began to exploit the grain in wood as an important element in their woodcuts. Since then many artists have used opportunities to incorporate the natural texture of wood, and expressive cut marks in their prints. The German Expressionists of Die Brüke in particular use the intrinsic nature of woodcuts as a major form of expression."

Click here for a brief explanation of Die Brüke and some examples of their work including woodcuts

Click here to link to a copy of Munch's 'The Scream' in woodblock print

The woodblock print of "The Scream" clearly demonstrates that Munch has incorporated the woodgrain itself as part of his expressive mark making. 

Click here to link to an Image of a woodcut my Gaugin on the Met Museum Website which also demonstrates the incorporation of woodgrain

"Interest in printmaking continued throughout the 20th century with many artists exploring the creative possibilities of, and extending the range of, printmaking media through experimentation with new materials and techniques to express their artistic ideas. Some continue to use and develop traditional methods such as etching, lithography and woodcuts whilst others extend the expressive range to achieve new and exciting results.

Contemporary artists continue to use printmaking as a significant part of their work. David Hockney, Peter Blake, Briget Riley, Lucien Freud and Tracey Emin have all produced prints in a variety of media alongside their paintings and installations. They have all recognised the creative potential and expressive range of printmaking and use many of its forms to express their artistic vision."

Click here to link to David Hockney's website 

David Hockney has used a number of printmaking techniques during his career. On his website are numerous examples of lithographs, etching, aquatint and 'home made prints' in which the process is not specified. His etchings include a series entitled 'A Rakes progress' after Hogarth's earlier series - a modern interpretation. 

Click Here to view examples of Peter Blake's work on the Red House Originals website

Peter Blake is renowned for being one of the founders of the pop art movement in the UK - as such, many of the images in his screenprints are taken from popular culture such as pop stars, sports stars and characters from comic books. He was the designer of the iconic cover of the Beatles's - 'Sergeant Peppers Lonely Hearts Club Band' and has designed covers for numerous other artists  including The Who and Oasis. 

His printmaking output is mainly in the form of Screenprints and Lithographs

Click Here to click to an example of Bridget Riley's Screenprints on The Tate website

Alongside her large scale works in paint on canvas or board, Bridget Riley has also produced screen prints on paper. The example above 'Blaze' from 1964 is a black and white screen print which creates the optical illusion of vibration and movement and even colour through the relative positioning of the shapes. Other examples such as her series of 'fragments' which are screen prints on plexiglass play with three dimensionality as an illusion. Her later work in colour creates vibrations though the juxtaposition of carefully chosen stripes of colour. 

Click Here to view one of Lucien Freud's Etchings

Freud is most well known as a prolific painter of the human form and for his mastery of flesh. The example of an etching above comes from his early period of venturing into printmaking - here the drawing is almost naïve - simplified and somewhat flattened. He started etching again later in his career - comparing the image above with "Woman with an Arm Tattoo" of 1996 and "Large Head" (Leigh Bowery) of 1993 (you can view the others by scrolling along below the fist image) there is a marked difference in the approach to the drawing - there is more concentration on folds and directions in the skin.

Click here to link to an an article from the Independent from 2010 in which Tracy Emin talks about her relationship with printmaking

Tracy Emin's work is largely autobiographical. Although she is more widely known for her more sensationalist installation work such as 'my bed' and 'everyone I've ever slept with', Her original degree incorporated printmaking and she returns to it again and again. She produces etchings, lithographs and monoprints. I will go into more detail about her monoprints when I get onto the research point for back drawn monoprints in project 3 of part one.

 Sources of Images:

Fig 1: http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/files/2012/06/el-castillo-hands.jpg

Fig 2: https://arthistoryunf.files.wordpress.com/2013/11/man-of-sorrows.jpg

Fig 3: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Durer_Revelation_Four_Riders.jpg/722px-Durer_Revelation_Four_Riders.jpg

Fig 4: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Dürer_Melancholia_I.jpg

Fig 5: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/B320_Rembrandt.jpg

Fig 6: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Rembrandt_van_Rijn_-_The_Entombment.jpg

Fig 7: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Giovanni_Benedetto_Castiglione_-_The_Creation_of_Adam_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg

Fig 8: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Giovanni_Benedetto_Castiglione_002.jpg

Fig 9: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/William_Hogarth_-_A_Rake's_Progress_-_Plate_4_-_Arrested_For_Debt.jpg

Fig 10: https://eclecticlightdotcom.files.wordpress.com/2016/03/hogarthrake4.jpg

Fig 11: http://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/media/collection_images/9/9734.a-c%23%23S.jpg

Fig 12: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/James_Abbott_McNeill_Whistler_-_Upright_Venice,_from_the_%22Twenty-Six_Etchings%22,_also_known_as_the_%22Second_Venice_Set%22_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg

Fig 13: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lautrec_moulin_rouge,_la_goulue_(poster)_1891.jpg